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  This site is intended for healthcare professionals yphoid FeveR Background Typhoid fever, also known as enteric fever, is a potentially fatal multisystemic illness caused primarily by  Salmonella enterica  serotype  typhi  and, to a lesser extent,  S enterica  serotypes  paratyphi  A, B, and C. The terms typhoid and enteric fever are commonly used to describe both major serotypes. Typhoid fever has a wide variety of presentations that range from an overwhelming multisystemic illness to relatively minor cases of diarrhea with low-grade fever. The classic presentation is fever, malaise, diffuse abdominal pain, and  constipation . Untreated typhoid fever may progress to  delirium , obtundation, intestinal hemorrhage, bowel perforation, and death within 1 month of onset. Survivors may be left with long-term or permanent neuropsychiatric complications.

  Typhoid fever is a bacterial infection that can spread throughout the body, affecting many organs. Without prompt treatment, it can cause serious complications and can be fatal. It's caused by a bacterium called Salmonella typhi, which is related to the bacteria that cause salmonella  food poisoning . Typhoid fever is highly contagious. An infected person can pass the bacteria out of their body in their poo (stools) or, less commonly, in their pee (urine). If someone else eats food or drinks water that's been contaminated with a small amount of infected poo or urine, they can become infected with the bacteria and develop typhoid fever. Read more about the  causes of typhoid fever . Who's affected? Typhoid fever is most common in parts of the world that have poor sanitation and limited access to clean water. Worldwide, children are thought to be most at risk of developing typhoid fever. This may be because their immune system (the body's natural defence against...

  Chapter and author info Show + 1. Introduction Water covers more than two-thirds of the earth’s surface, but mostly salty and undrinkable. The available freshwater resource is only 2.7% of the available water on earth but only 1% of the available freshwater (in lakes, rivers and groundwater) is accessible. Most of the available freshwater resources are inaccessible because they are in the hidden part of the hydrologic cycles (deep aquifers) and in glaciers (frozen in the polar ice), which means safe drinkable water on earth has very small proportion (~3%) in the freshwater resources. Freshwater can also be obtained from the seawater by desalinization process. In some countries, sufficient freshwater is not available ( physical scarcity ). In some countries, abundant freshwater is available, but it is expensive to use ( economic scarcity ). South Africa receives about 450 mm annual rainfall and is classified as a water-stressed country [ 1 ,  2 ]. The available freshwate...